The operating principle of a lithium battery refers to its charge–discharge mechanism. During charging, lithium ions are generated at the battery’s positive electrode and migrate through the electrolyte to the negative electrode.

In essence, the operating principle of a lithium–carbon dioxide battery is as follows: during charging, lithium ions migrate from the positive electrode, through the electrolyte, to the negative electrode. The carbon material serving as the negative electrode possesses a layered structure with numerous micropores; the lithium ions that reach the negative electrode become intercalated within these micropores. Consequently, the greater the number of intercalated lithium ions, the higher the charge capacity.

Portable sealed secondary cells and batteries containing alkaline or non‑acidic electrolytes: nickel cells and nickel batteries (assemblies); lithium‑ion cells and lithium‑ion batteries (assemblies); rechargeable batteries and battery packs for portable devices.

The key components of a lithium battery are the positive electrode, the negative electrode, the electrolyte, and the separator. Among these, the materials of the positive and negative electrodes determine the battery’s energy density, while the electrolyte and separator enable the free passage of lithium ions, thereby completing the electrical circuit; together, they play a central role in the battery’s performance. Under these conditions, both the battery’s capacity and its charging speed—two core factors behind range anxiety in electric vehicles—can be traced back to challenges in battery materials. There is no doubt that battery materials science has become a pivotal field driving advances in electric‑vehicle technology, whether viewed from the perspective of boosting energy density or improving charging efficiency.

A condensed-state system refers to a system composed of a large number of particles that interact strongly with one another. CATL’s condensed‑state battery features an electrolyte that differs fundamentally from the liquid electrolytes used in conventional lithium‑ion batteries: rather than being fully liquid, it exists in a semi‑solid, gel‑like state. This enables the battery to efficiently facilitate lithium‑ion transport between the positive and negative electrodes, while the inherent viscosity of the electrolyte reduces its fluidity, thereby enhancing overall power‑battery performance and mitigating the significant risk of thermal runaway associated with traditional liquid‑electrolyte lithium‑ion batteries. Moreover, the condensed‑state battery integrates a suite of innovative technologies, including an ultra‑high specific‑energy cathode, a novel anode, a specialized separator, and advanced manufacturing processes.

The operating principle of a lithium-ion battery refers to its charge–discharge mechanism. During charging, lithium ions are generated at the battery’s positive electrode and migrate through the electrolyte to the negative electrode. The carbon material serving as the negative electrode has a layered structure with numerous micropores; the lithium ions that reach the negative electrode intercalate into these pores. The greater the number of intercalated lithium ions, the higher the battery’s charge capacity. Conversely, during discharge—the process by which we use the battery—lithium ions embedded in the carbon layers of the negative electrode de‑intercalate and move back to the positive electrode. The more lithium ions that return to the positive electrode, the higher the battery’s discharge capacity. What is commonly referred to as a battery’s capacity is, in fact, its discharge capacity.

Since their inception, lithium-ion batteries have a history that dates back to 1976, when the “father of lithium batteries” proposed the earliest prototype of a rechargeable lithium battery: a cathode material made of titanium sulfide, a metallic lithium anode, and an electrolyte containing lithium salts. From that point onward, lithium-ion batteries officially came into being.